AndreySolera
Sep 17, 2025
Research Papers / The Psychological Impact of Parasocial Relationships on Young Adults [2]
At the touch of a fingertip, a friend is found-on the other side of the screen. They sound intentional and personal, as though they want a genuine relationship with the viewer. They seem aware of the viewer's existence. On a planet of seven billion people, the viewer feels chosen when this digital friend addresses them despite having hundreds, thousands, or even millions of followers. Suddenly, it does not feel so lonely anymore, and the night is not as dark. Many young adults today participate in parasocial relationships (PSRs), which are one-sided emotional bonds with media figures that feel intimate but lack reciprocity.
There is immense importance in putting focus on the effects of PSRs for my generation; it is a generation born into a technological world, reliant on digital platforms that blur the line between private and public life. Many people have incorporated parasocial relationships into their daily routine to provide comfort, distraction, and, to an extent, a sense of identity. My peers spend hours watching live streams, feeling gratification when an influencer "knows about their existence" through mentioning their usernames or "liking" their comments. Others spend significant amounts of money supporting them through donations, merchandise, subscription-based services, and attending concerts/ meet-and-greets. These desires and experiences illustrate the profound influence of parasocial relationships and highlight their importance, warranting academic and social attention. My intended audience includes peers, educators, and those concerned about the mental health of young adults in the digital era. The chosen audience values community-building, mental health, and authentic relationships, yet engages in habits that contribute to isolation, making it an urgent, though paradoxical matter. While parasocial relationships can ease loneliness and provide belonging, overreliance on them creates a lonelier, more isolated reality that encourages social withdrawal and fosters unrealistic expectations for intimacy.
Parasocial relationships are not new. In 1956, Donald Horton and R. Richard Wohl coined the term after observing how television audiences formed "illusions of intimacy" with media figures such as talk show hosts and news anchors (Mohn). In the past, television had a limited structure and content; audiences tuned in at specific times to see familiar faces, often on a daily or weekly basis. Over time, this repetition made viewers accustomed to a routine, resulting in a sense of familiarity as if they personally knew the people on the show, even though the connection was entirely one-sided. The very structure of television programming- its scheduled broadcasts, hosts looking into the camera as if they were directly speaking to the audience, and the repetition of their presence- gave the viewers the interpretation that a television personality's performance is for their personal attention.
With the prominence of new media, however, these one-sided attachments deepened. The growth of 24-hour cable television in the late twentieth century provided media figures with increased visibility to the public beyond traditional evening news and weekly shows. This resulted in audiences engaging with familiar personalities more frequently, reinforcing feelings of connection and dependence. However, a profound transformation occurred after the invention of the internet and social media platforms, such as YouTube, Instagram, Facebook, and TikTok. Unlike TV stars, today's influencers and celebrities have an easier time maintaining near-constant visibility through posts, stories, and live streams. Algorithms allow the personalization of content for each user's preferences, creating a highly personalized experience that makes fans feel directly spoken to or that the online gimmicks are crafted solely for them. Viewers might scroll through their feed and see an influencer addressing them by saying "Hey guys," or "I missed you." The choice of words makes it feel intimate, as though it is meant for an individual rather than an audience of millions. Unlike the television programs of the 1950s and 1960s, the accessibility of PSRs makes them prevalent, as they can be received anywhere and by anyone, often through a small device in one's pocket.
The COVID-19 pandemic magnified this dynamic. When lockdowns forced physical isolation, parasocial relationships became coping mechanisms for many young adults. Jarzyna observed how PSRs provided comfort during quarantine, functioning as substitutes for real-world relationships that were temporarily unavailable. Nanditha Ravi and Sairaj Patki likewise found that Indian youth turned to these connections not only for entertainment but also as a source of emotional support. However, the pandemic also revealed the limits of these bonds. Despite hours of engagement, these interactions were limited to scripted reactions for the general public and not personal responses to most followers, leaving many feeling even more isolated. This paradox- where parasocial connections soothe loneliness but ultimately deepen it- demonstrates why PSRs are such a complex phenomenon.
Heidi Godman describes the stakes succinctly: "parasocial relationships can soothe loneliness, but they risk deepening isolation when they replace real-world bonds" (Harvard Health Blog). This duality underscores the importance of studying PSRs. As the loneliness epidemic worsens, it is crucial to understand the harms and limitations of PSRs in protecting the well-being and social development of many people and the overall community health. For me, this research also offers a way to bridge the gap between media psychology and the lived experiences of belonging. Understanding how these one-sided relationships shape behavior and expectations could help explain why my generation struggles with isolation despite being more digitally connected than ever.
At their core, parasocial relationships involve intimacy, identification, and dependency directed toward media figures, whether fictional or nonfictional, despite the absence of mutual exchange (Hoffner and Bond). Audiences often feel personally known by these figures even though the relationship is one-sided. Such perceptions obscure the distinction between authentic relationships and parasocial attachments, raising concerns about how individuals differentiate between genuine intimacy and illusions. An example would be a young adult genuinely feeling comforted and heard when a favorite YouTuber posts a video about their personal struggles, such as a moment of shared vulnerability. The viewer could feel like it was an intimate moment between them and the YouTuber, when in fact, the content was modeled to fit a mass, anonymous audience. Moments like this blur the boundaries between connection and performance.
Cross-cultural research shows that parasocial attachments are not limited to Western contexts. Ravi and Patki's mixed-methods study among Indian youth revealed that adolescents and young adults turn to parasocial connections not only for entertainment but also for emotional support. Similarly, Mula Márquez and colleagues' review emphasizes that these bonds extend beyond authentic influencers to fictional characters, demonstrating the global and varied forms of PSRs. In Korea, there are personalities called "K-pop idols," who fall under strict guidelines, such as the restriction of romantic relationships, with their management to help preserve their PSRs with their fans. Some obsessive fans, who are called sasaengs, believe that they are entitled to invade their idols' spaces because of the interactions they have had online or the belief that they helped contribute to their success, whether financially or in popularity. This trend also affects Anime fandoms in which fans treat fictional characters like real people. It does not help that sometimes, anime shows are turned into interactive games or simulations, further deepening the desires of their fans to continue the interactions. These examples highlight how PSRs transcend cultural and geographical boundaries, underscoring their global relevance.
Research also confirms that these attachments span age groups. Younger adolescents may bond with fictional superheroes or animated characters, while older adolescents and adults gravitate toward influencers, athletes, or musicians. A systematic review by Mula Márquez, Nava-Arquillo, and Matías-García shows that these relationships are integrated into daily routines, such as checking an influencer's Instagram stories upon waking up or following every new video upload. The habitual nature of these actions proves how parasocial bonds are not occasional diversions, but consistent factors of many young adults' lives.
While PSRs may provide comfort, their long-term repercussions are concerning. Riva Tukachinsky's meta-analysis demonstrates that parasocial involvement is linked to lower life satisfaction and heightened loneliness when dependence deepens. Because media figures cannot reciprocate, the comfort they provide is fragile, and unmet needs often intensify feelings of disconnection. Ravi and Patki's research among Indian youth echoes this finding, showing that parasocial reliance frequently substitutes for, rather than complements, genuine social bonds. Instead of supporting healthy relationships, these attachments risk increasing isolation. Jarzyna also notes that PSRs intensified during the pandemic but often magnified psychological distress. Many young adults felt lonelier when influencers failed to respond personally, underscoring the limits of one-sided intimacy.
The psychological impacts of PSRs are multifaceted. Due to the one-sided bond of PSRs, young adults may experience heightened anxiety or feelings of rejection when influencers fail to acknowledge them. Influencers strive to have a picture-perfect life and display unattainable lifestyles, which can heavily influence their fans' expectations of themselves, possibly resulting in an overwhelming sense of jealousy due to the comparison with idealized lifestyles. Godman stresses that the carefully curated portrayals of influencers often promote unattainable standards of beauty, wealth, or success, which can distort young adults' body image and sense of self-worth (Harvard Health Blog). There are also social consequences from the time spent on PSRs. The time devoted to following influencers may detract from opportunities to engage in real-life relationships and hobbies that provide genuine fulfillment. In extreme cases, financial consequences arise as fans spend significant amounts on merchandise, donations, or subscription services to feel "closer" to their chosen media figure. These hidden costs further illustrate the risks of substituting parasocial ties for reciprocal human relationships.
Health experts emphasize that PSRs are further complicated by the nature of influencer personas, which are carefully crafted to appeal to their target audiences. Godman argues that these cultivated images foster unrealistic comparisons, leaving followers anxious and dissatisfied. These exaggerated portrayals can erode young adults' self-worth and diminish their capacity to form balanced relationships (Harvard Health Blog). Beyond personal harm, cultural critics note that parasocial attachments can turn toxic when expectations are violated. Sarah Manavis describes how "anti-fan" behavior emerges when audiences, once loyal, lash out at influencers in hostility. This volatility indicates that PSRs are not merely harmless diversions but can have destructive consequences for both viewers and media figures.
Despite these dangers, short-term strategies exist for healthier engagement. Adam Borland suggests that parasocial bonds can provide benefits if treated as supplemental connections rather than substitutes. When managed with boundaries, they may temporarily reduce stress and loneliness, especially when in-person support is unavailable (Borland). For instance, someone may enjoy watching their favorite Twitch streamer during stressful times. Still, as long as they maintain strong offline friendships, the PSR can serve as a positive supplement rather than a dangerous replacement.
Media literacy programs also offer promise. Cynthia Hoffner and Bradley Bond emphasize that teaching young adults to recognize the constructed nature of influencer personas can help them resist harmful comparisons and engage more critically with the content. Therapy and guided self-reflection provide additional ways to create boundaries and prevent overdependence on parasocial ties (Godman). Short-term strategies such as screen-time limits and self-reflection exercises can help individuals regulate their engagement with parasocial figures. For example, some psychologists recommend daily journaling about online interactions to distinguish between digital bonds and real-world relationships.
Still, lasting solutions require stronger real-world connections. Ravi highlights the importance of community engagement and mental health resources as ways to reduce reliance on parasocial bonds. Promoting group participation and interpersonal interaction equips young adults with tools to manage loneliness and foster meaningful relationships. Expanding access to affordable counseling, peer support groups, and campus mental health services can strengthen resilience and encourage balanced social lives.
Cultural reforms are also necessary. Anna Cafolla argues that reducing the idolization of influencers and promoting transparency can prevent unhealthy attachments from escalating. Platforms could also implement transparency requirements, such as disclosures about edited content or paid promotions, to help audiences distinguish reality from performance. Reviews by Jie Sheng, Alena Kostyk, and Kalliopi Chatzipanagiotou support the need for research-driven strategies to help individuals manage PSRs more effectively. For example, systematic reviews suggest developing "digital hygiene" practices-such as scheduled screen breaks and intentional offline activities-that could mitigate the adverse effects of PSRs. These reforms, alongside community-building efforts, can help young adults strike a balance between digital connections and authentic social bonds.
Parasocial relationships are a defining feature of modern media culture, offering both comfort and risk. They may provide temporary companionship, but their long-term effects-dependence, isolation, and distorted expectations-make them harmful when they replace genuine human connections. By drawing on psychological research, cultural commentary, and health perspectives, this paper argues for caution in how PSRs are understood and practiced. Ultimately, balance is key: young adults must learn to embrace parasocial comfort when necessary, but prioritize community and real-world intimacy to achieve the sense of belonging they seek in an increasingly digital world.
Works Cited
At the touch of a fingertip, a friend is found-on the other side of the screen. They sound intentional and personal, as though they want a genuine relationship with the viewer. They seem aware of the viewer's existence. On a planet of seven billion people, the viewer feels chosen when this digital friend addresses them despite having hundreds, thousands, or even millions of followers. Suddenly, it does not feel so lonely anymore, and the night is not as dark. Many young adults today participate in parasocial relationships (PSRs), which are one-sided emotional bonds with media figures that feel intimate but lack reciprocity.
There is immense importance in putting focus on the effects of PSRs for my generation; it is a generation born into a technological world, reliant on digital platforms that blur the line between private and public life. Many people have incorporated parasocial relationships into their daily routine to provide comfort, distraction, and, to an extent, a sense of identity. My peers spend hours watching live streams, feeling gratification when an influencer "knows about their existence" through mentioning their usernames or "liking" their comments. Others spend significant amounts of money supporting them through donations, merchandise, subscription-based services, and attending concerts/ meet-and-greets. These desires and experiences illustrate the profound influence of parasocial relationships and highlight their importance, warranting academic and social attention. My intended audience includes peers, educators, and those concerned about the mental health of young adults in the digital era. The chosen audience values community-building, mental health, and authentic relationships, yet engages in habits that contribute to isolation, making it an urgent, though paradoxical matter. While parasocial relationships can ease loneliness and provide belonging, overreliance on them creates a lonelier, more isolated reality that encourages social withdrawal and fosters unrealistic expectations for intimacy.
Parasocial relationships are not new. In 1956, Donald Horton and R. Richard Wohl coined the term after observing how television audiences formed "illusions of intimacy" with media figures such as talk show hosts and news anchors (Mohn). In the past, television had a limited structure and content; audiences tuned in at specific times to see familiar faces, often on a daily or weekly basis. Over time, this repetition made viewers accustomed to a routine, resulting in a sense of familiarity as if they personally knew the people on the show, even though the connection was entirely one-sided. The very structure of television programming- its scheduled broadcasts, hosts looking into the camera as if they were directly speaking to the audience, and the repetition of their presence- gave the viewers the interpretation that a television personality's performance is for their personal attention.
With the prominence of new media, however, these one-sided attachments deepened. The growth of 24-hour cable television in the late twentieth century provided media figures with increased visibility to the public beyond traditional evening news and weekly shows. This resulted in audiences engaging with familiar personalities more frequently, reinforcing feelings of connection and dependence. However, a profound transformation occurred after the invention of the internet and social media platforms, such as YouTube, Instagram, Facebook, and TikTok. Unlike TV stars, today's influencers and celebrities have an easier time maintaining near-constant visibility through posts, stories, and live streams. Algorithms allow the personalization of content for each user's preferences, creating a highly personalized experience that makes fans feel directly spoken to or that the online gimmicks are crafted solely for them. Viewers might scroll through their feed and see an influencer addressing them by saying "Hey guys," or "I missed you." The choice of words makes it feel intimate, as though it is meant for an individual rather than an audience of millions. Unlike the television programs of the 1950s and 1960s, the accessibility of PSRs makes them prevalent, as they can be received anywhere and by anyone, often through a small device in one's pocket.
The COVID-19 pandemic magnified this dynamic. When lockdowns forced physical isolation, parasocial relationships became coping mechanisms for many young adults. Jarzyna observed how PSRs provided comfort during quarantine, functioning as substitutes for real-world relationships that were temporarily unavailable. Nanditha Ravi and Sairaj Patki likewise found that Indian youth turned to these connections not only for entertainment but also as a source of emotional support. However, the pandemic also revealed the limits of these bonds. Despite hours of engagement, these interactions were limited to scripted reactions for the general public and not personal responses to most followers, leaving many feeling even more isolated. This paradox- where parasocial connections soothe loneliness but ultimately deepen it- demonstrates why PSRs are such a complex phenomenon.
Heidi Godman describes the stakes succinctly: "parasocial relationships can soothe loneliness, but they risk deepening isolation when they replace real-world bonds" (Harvard Health Blog). This duality underscores the importance of studying PSRs. As the loneliness epidemic worsens, it is crucial to understand the harms and limitations of PSRs in protecting the well-being and social development of many people and the overall community health. For me, this research also offers a way to bridge the gap between media psychology and the lived experiences of belonging. Understanding how these one-sided relationships shape behavior and expectations could help explain why my generation struggles with isolation despite being more digitally connected than ever.
At their core, parasocial relationships involve intimacy, identification, and dependency directed toward media figures, whether fictional or nonfictional, despite the absence of mutual exchange (Hoffner and Bond). Audiences often feel personally known by these figures even though the relationship is one-sided. Such perceptions obscure the distinction between authentic relationships and parasocial attachments, raising concerns about how individuals differentiate between genuine intimacy and illusions. An example would be a young adult genuinely feeling comforted and heard when a favorite YouTuber posts a video about their personal struggles, such as a moment of shared vulnerability. The viewer could feel like it was an intimate moment between them and the YouTuber, when in fact, the content was modeled to fit a mass, anonymous audience. Moments like this blur the boundaries between connection and performance.
Cross-cultural research shows that parasocial attachments are not limited to Western contexts. Ravi and Patki's mixed-methods study among Indian youth revealed that adolescents and young adults turn to parasocial connections not only for entertainment but also for emotional support. Similarly, Mula Márquez and colleagues' review emphasizes that these bonds extend beyond authentic influencers to fictional characters, demonstrating the global and varied forms of PSRs. In Korea, there are personalities called "K-pop idols," who fall under strict guidelines, such as the restriction of romantic relationships, with their management to help preserve their PSRs with their fans. Some obsessive fans, who are called sasaengs, believe that they are entitled to invade their idols' spaces because of the interactions they have had online or the belief that they helped contribute to their success, whether financially or in popularity. This trend also affects Anime fandoms in which fans treat fictional characters like real people. It does not help that sometimes, anime shows are turned into interactive games or simulations, further deepening the desires of their fans to continue the interactions. These examples highlight how PSRs transcend cultural and geographical boundaries, underscoring their global relevance.
Research also confirms that these attachments span age groups. Younger adolescents may bond with fictional superheroes or animated characters, while older adolescents and adults gravitate toward influencers, athletes, or musicians. A systematic review by Mula Márquez, Nava-Arquillo, and Matías-García shows that these relationships are integrated into daily routines, such as checking an influencer's Instagram stories upon waking up or following every new video upload. The habitual nature of these actions proves how parasocial bonds are not occasional diversions, but consistent factors of many young adults' lives.
While PSRs may provide comfort, their long-term repercussions are concerning. Riva Tukachinsky's meta-analysis demonstrates that parasocial involvement is linked to lower life satisfaction and heightened loneliness when dependence deepens. Because media figures cannot reciprocate, the comfort they provide is fragile, and unmet needs often intensify feelings of disconnection. Ravi and Patki's research among Indian youth echoes this finding, showing that parasocial reliance frequently substitutes for, rather than complements, genuine social bonds. Instead of supporting healthy relationships, these attachments risk increasing isolation. Jarzyna also notes that PSRs intensified during the pandemic but often magnified psychological distress. Many young adults felt lonelier when influencers failed to respond personally, underscoring the limits of one-sided intimacy.
The psychological impacts of PSRs are multifaceted. Due to the one-sided bond of PSRs, young adults may experience heightened anxiety or feelings of rejection when influencers fail to acknowledge them. Influencers strive to have a picture-perfect life and display unattainable lifestyles, which can heavily influence their fans' expectations of themselves, possibly resulting in an overwhelming sense of jealousy due to the comparison with idealized lifestyles. Godman stresses that the carefully curated portrayals of influencers often promote unattainable standards of beauty, wealth, or success, which can distort young adults' body image and sense of self-worth (Harvard Health Blog). There are also social consequences from the time spent on PSRs. The time devoted to following influencers may detract from opportunities to engage in real-life relationships and hobbies that provide genuine fulfillment. In extreme cases, financial consequences arise as fans spend significant amounts on merchandise, donations, or subscription services to feel "closer" to their chosen media figure. These hidden costs further illustrate the risks of substituting parasocial ties for reciprocal human relationships.
Health experts emphasize that PSRs are further complicated by the nature of influencer personas, which are carefully crafted to appeal to their target audiences. Godman argues that these cultivated images foster unrealistic comparisons, leaving followers anxious and dissatisfied. These exaggerated portrayals can erode young adults' self-worth and diminish their capacity to form balanced relationships (Harvard Health Blog). Beyond personal harm, cultural critics note that parasocial attachments can turn toxic when expectations are violated. Sarah Manavis describes how "anti-fan" behavior emerges when audiences, once loyal, lash out at influencers in hostility. This volatility indicates that PSRs are not merely harmless diversions but can have destructive consequences for both viewers and media figures.
Despite these dangers, short-term strategies exist for healthier engagement. Adam Borland suggests that parasocial bonds can provide benefits if treated as supplemental connections rather than substitutes. When managed with boundaries, they may temporarily reduce stress and loneliness, especially when in-person support is unavailable (Borland). For instance, someone may enjoy watching their favorite Twitch streamer during stressful times. Still, as long as they maintain strong offline friendships, the PSR can serve as a positive supplement rather than a dangerous replacement.
Media literacy programs also offer promise. Cynthia Hoffner and Bradley Bond emphasize that teaching young adults to recognize the constructed nature of influencer personas can help them resist harmful comparisons and engage more critically with the content. Therapy and guided self-reflection provide additional ways to create boundaries and prevent overdependence on parasocial ties (Godman). Short-term strategies such as screen-time limits and self-reflection exercises can help individuals regulate their engagement with parasocial figures. For example, some psychologists recommend daily journaling about online interactions to distinguish between digital bonds and real-world relationships.
Still, lasting solutions require stronger real-world connections. Ravi highlights the importance of community engagement and mental health resources as ways to reduce reliance on parasocial bonds. Promoting group participation and interpersonal interaction equips young adults with tools to manage loneliness and foster meaningful relationships. Expanding access to affordable counseling, peer support groups, and campus mental health services can strengthen resilience and encourage balanced social lives.
Cultural reforms are also necessary. Anna Cafolla argues that reducing the idolization of influencers and promoting transparency can prevent unhealthy attachments from escalating. Platforms could also implement transparency requirements, such as disclosures about edited content or paid promotions, to help audiences distinguish reality from performance. Reviews by Jie Sheng, Alena Kostyk, and Kalliopi Chatzipanagiotou support the need for research-driven strategies to help individuals manage PSRs more effectively. For example, systematic reviews suggest developing "digital hygiene" practices-such as scheduled screen breaks and intentional offline activities-that could mitigate the adverse effects of PSRs. These reforms, alongside community-building efforts, can help young adults strike a balance between digital connections and authentic social bonds.
Parasocial relationships are a defining feature of modern media culture, offering both comfort and risk. They may provide temporary companionship, but their long-term effects-dependence, isolation, and distorted expectations-make them harmful when they replace genuine human connections. By drawing on psychological research, cultural commentary, and health perspectives, this paper argues for caution in how PSRs are understood and practiced. Ultimately, balance is key: young adults must learn to embrace parasocial comfort when necessary, but prioritize community and real-world intimacy to achieve the sense of belonging they seek in an increasingly digital world.
Works Cited
