Milo2024
Nov 19, 2025
Research Papers / Drafting and Peer Review Child Abuse and Neglect [3]
Drafting and Peer Review
Child abuse and neglect, also known as child maltreatment, are significant public health issues defined as any act or failure to act by a parent, caregiver, or other person in a custodial role that results in harm, the potential for harm, or the threat of harm to a child under the age of 18. There are four primary categories of maltreatment, which often occur simultaneously Physical Abuse: The intentional use of physical force that can result in bodily injury, such as hitting, kicking, shaking, or burning. Sexual Abuse: Any sexual act or contact with a child, including fondling, penetration, or exposing a child to sexual materials or activities. Emotional (or Psychological) Abuse: Behaviors that harm a child's self-worth or emotional well-being, such as constant criticism, shaming, rejecting, or intimidating a child. Neglect: The failure to meet a child's basic physical and emotional needs, including adequate housing, food, clothing, education, supervision, and medical care. Neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment. Recognizing the signs of child abuse and neglect is crucial for intervention. Signs can manifest in the child's behavior, physical condition, or the parent/caregiver's actions.
The concept of addressing child abuse and neglect in America was not "established" in 1977 but rather was an ongoing national issue with significant developments that year, including Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) of 1974 was in full implementation and undergoing reauthorization hearings. This landmark federal law helped states to develop programs for the identification and prevention of child abuse and neglect. The establishment of the International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (ISPCAN) on July 7, 1977, by a group of professionals, including pediatrician Henry Kempe, who was a leading figure in bringing child abuse to national attention. The passage of the Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation Act of 1977 to address the issue of child pornography. The second National Conference on Child Abuse and Neglect was held in April 1977, focusing on innovation in intervention and implementation of model laws and reporting requirements. A national analysis of official reports in 1977 indicated a substantial increase in casework counseling and voluntary placement for child maltreatment cases. Overall, 1977 was a year of significant activity in refining and extending the legal and social frameworks for addressing child abuse and neglect that had been established earlier in the decade. These documents present the 1977 national analysis of child abuse and neglect reporting and discuss the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act.
Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation Act of 1977: This Act made it a federal crime to knowingly film, photograph, or transport minors for sexual acts, imposing significant fines and prison sentences. It was passed in response to increasing media attention on the issue of child pornography and aimed to stop the commercial sexual exploitation of children Extension of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA): Hearings were held in April 1977 to examine and extend the provisions of the original CAPTA, which was enacted in 1974. These efforts eventually led to the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment and Adoption Reform Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-266), which broadened the federal definition of child abuse to include sexual exploitation and expanded the federal role in adoption reform. State- Levels Legislation in 1977 saw significant activity at the state level as well. An updated report on state legislative trends from that year details the various conditions, mandatory reporting requirements, and central registries being established across states to handle child abuse cases. For example, the District of Columbia passed the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect Act of 1977 (D.C. Law 2-22). The primary federal focus in 1977 was on addressing the specific, egregious issue of commercial child sexual exploitation and strengthening existing mechanisms for reporting and treatment of child abuse and neglect.
Child abuse and neglect can have severe, long-term impacts on a child's physical and mental health, brain development, educational attainment, and future opportunities. These effects can persist in adulthood, increasing the risk of chronic health problems, substance abuse, and future cycles of violence. Prevention is possible through supporting families and offering resources before a crisis occurs. Protective factors include strong family relationships, parental knowledge of child development, and access to healthcare and social services. In many places, professionals like doctors, teachers, and social workers are legally required to report their suspicions. In many states, all people are encouraged to report suspected abuse, but specific groups of professionals (mandated reporters) are legally required to do so when they have a "reasonable belief" that a minor is being abused or neglected in their professional capacity. Failure to report can result in criminal penalties. In some states, any person who has a reasonable belief that child abuse or neglect has occurred is required to report it. Even in states where the public is not legally mandated, anyone who suspects abuse or neglects is strongly encouraged to make a report to protect the child reports can often be made anonymously.
In the United States, there were an estimated 546,159 victims of child abuse and neglect in Federal Fiscal Year (FFY) 2023, a rate of 7.4 victims per 1,000 children in the population. These statistics represent only reported cases, and many incidents go unreported. Total Referrals to CPS agencies received almost 4.4 million referrals for approximately 7.78 million children. Maltreatment Type: Neglect was the most common form of maltreatment in 2022 at 74.3%, followed by physical abuse at 17.0%, and sexual abuse at 10.6% (percentages exceed 100% due to children experiencing multiple types of maltreatment).: Approximately 2,000 children died from abuse and neglect, a rate of 2.73 per 100,000, with boys having a higher rate than girls. Children under 1 year old had the highest victimization rate American Indian or Alaska Native children had the highest rate, followed by African American children. Girls had a slightly higher rate than boys. Professionals submitted the majority (70.9%) of reports in 2023. In 90% of cases, the perpetrator was known to the family, with parents being the majority (76.0% in 2023). The number of identified victims decreased from 2022 to 2023, while child fatalities have generally increased over the past several years. Statistics from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and other sources indicate significant racial and ethnic disparities in reported and substantiated cases of child abuse and neglect. American Indian/Alaska Native and Black children experience the highest rates of victimization and fatalities.
Racial disparities are even more pronounced in child fatalities due to abuse and neglect. The fatality rate for Black children is over three times greater than that of White children, and nearly four times greater than Hispanic children. These disparities are complex and linked to a combination of systemic issues, rather than just individual or family characteristics Black children with no history of public assistance still live in neighborhoods with significantly higher childhood poverty rates than White children with a history of public assistance. Poverty and economic uncertainty are significant drivers of maltreatment and related risk factors. Studies suggest that implicit bias and structural racism within the child protective services (CPS) and medical reporting systems contribute to higher reporting and investigation rates for Black and Native American families. Medical professionals have been found to have a higher threshold for suspecting White families of abuse and a lower threshold for Black families, even when controlling income levels. Disparities persist even in areas with robust child support policies, suggesting that underlying inequities in access to health and welfare systems play a significant role.
Children living in poverty experience more abuse and neglect. Experiencing poverty can place a lot of stress on families, which may increase the risk for child abuse and neglect. Rates of child abuse and neglect are five times higher for children in families with low socioeconomic status compared to families with a higher socioeconomic status. Child maltreatment is costly in the United States, a total lifetime economic burden associated with child abuse and neglect. A 2023 report that the University of Tennessee's Haslam college of Business placed the economic costs of child mortality from abuse and neglect at over $231 million per year in 2023 dollars. This economic burden rivals the cost of other high-profile public health problems, such as heart disease and diabetes. Over the long term, children who are abused or neglected are also at increased risk for experiencing future violence victimization and perpetration, substance abuse, sexually transmitted infections, delayed brain development, lower educational attainment, and limited employment opportunities. Abuse and neglect may result in toxic stress, which can change brain development and increase the risk for problems like posttraumatic stress disorder and learning, attention, and memory difficulties.
Poverty is a significant risk factor strongly correlated with increased rates of child abuse and, particularly, child neglect. While most families experiencing poverty do not maltreat their children, economic hardship creates stressors that can strain family functioning and increase the likelihood of abuse and neglect. Children from families with low socioeconomic status are at a significantly higher risk of experiencing abuse and neglect compared to those with higher socioeconomic status. The risk of harm from neglect can be over seven times greater for children in low-SES families. Economic pressure, such as job loss, food insecurity, and housing instability, contributes to parental stress, anxiety, and depression, which can impair parenting capacity. Limited resources and an inability to meet basic needs like adequate food, clothing, and shelter can also lead to situations classified as neglect. There is a strong correlation, poverty itself is generally not considered the direct cause of abuse or neglect, but rather a powerful underlying risk factor. Inability to provide due to lack of means is distinct from an unwillingness to provide. Families experiencing poverty are more likely to come under the scrutiny of the child welfare system, potentially leading to disproportionate reporting and investigation rates. There is concern that poverty is sometimes mistaken for neglect by mandatory reporters and child protective services (CPS).
Research shows that most maltreated children do not become abusive parents or criminals, but they are at a significantly higher risk than the general population. Studies consistently show that individuals with a history of child abuse and neglect are more likely to engage in delinquent and criminal behavior, including violent crimes, as juveniles and adults. One study found that child maltreatment victims were almost five times more likely to be charged with an offense than their non-abused counterparts. The connection is explained by several factors, including Social Learning: Children may adopt the violent behavior patterns they experience at home, learning that violence is an acceptable response to conflict Brain Development: Prolonged traumatic stress can disrupt healthy brain development, leading to difficulties with emotion regulation, attention, and behavior control. Psychological Issues: Victims are at higher risk for mental health problems like PTSD, depression, and anxiety, which can be linked to criminal behavior. Lack of Identity/Skills: Trauma can disrupt the formation of a stable sense of self, and victims may lack essential life skills (e.g., job searching, money management), leading them to crime as a means of survival. Substance Abuse: Abuse survivors may turn to drugs or alcohol to self-medicate and cope with emotional pain, which in turn can lead to criminal activity. Many victims are resilient and do not follow this pathway. Protective factors can buffer the negative effects of abuse, such as: Positive relationships with supportive adults (e.g., teachers, mentors, law enforcement officers)Access to appropriate prevention and treatment programs A stable home environment (if removed from the abusive situation) The failure of social systems to protect and care for these children is considered a significant factor in perpetuating the cycle of violence.
Adults who suffered child abuse and neglect as children are at a significantly increased risk for a wide range of long-term challenges, including poor physical health, mental health disorders, relationship difficulties, and behavioral problems. The specific outcomes can vary depending on the type, severity, and chronicity of the maltreatment, but the effects are often profound and enduring. Childhood maltreatment affects the developing brain and stress response systems, leading to numerous issues later in life. For example, Depression, anxiety, PTSD, Other Issues: Eating disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and dissociative disorders are also common. The chronic stress resulting from childhood trauma can lead to serious physical health problems in adulthood. Survivors often struggle with forming and maintaining healthy, stable relationships.
Behavioral and Economic Outcomes There is an increased likelihood of engaging in high-risk health behaviors, including alcohol and substance abuse, smoking, self-harm, and risky sexual behavior. Lower Economic Productivity: Adults with a history of child maltreatment are more likely to have lower educational attainment, lower IQ scores, and a decreased likelihood of having a skilled job. Criminal Behavior: Abused and neglected children are at a significantly higher risk for juvenile delinquency and adult criminality. Studies indicate that abused and neglected children are significantly more likely to be arrested as juveniles and as adults. The risk of arrest in violent crimes is substantially higher for those who have experienced abuse or neglect as children. Maltreated children have been found to be arrested more frequently and commit nearly twice as many offenses as their non-maltreated peers. Some research has found that while both genders are at increased risk, abused and neglected females are also at a higher risk for violent arrests as adults, which contrasts with some earlier findings. The increased risk for delinquency and criminality associated with child abuse and neglect is present across different racial and ethnic groups. A high percentage of incarcerated individuals report a history of childhood victimization. For example, one study of adult male felons found that 68% had experienced some form of early childhood abuse or neglect. Maltreated children tend to be arrested at a younger age, commit nearly twice as many offenses, and have more frequent criminal involvement. The probability of engaging in crime increases with the experience of multiple forms or greater severity of maltreatment. Children exposed to violence may become desensitized to it, viewing aggressive behavior as normal or acceptable. One prominent longitudinal study found that individuals who were abused or neglected as children were: 53% more likely to be arrested as a juvenile.,38% more likely to be arrested as an adult, 38% more likely to be arrested for a violent crime.
Conclusion is that Child abuse and neglect can be prevented certain factors may increase or decrease the risk of perpetrating or experiencing child abuse and neglect. Preventing child abuse and neglect requires understanding and addressing the factors that put people at risk for or protect them from violence. Everyone benefits when children have safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments we all have role to play. The necessity for increased awareness, early intervention, and a public health approach to prevention that focuses on creating safe, stable, and nurturing environments for all children. Providing access to concrete support like affordable housing, childcare subsidies, mental health services, and food assistance can help mitigate the stressors associated with poverty. Increase family income, such as a higher minimum wage, the Earned Income Tax Credit, and direct financial relief, have been linked to a reduction in child maltreatment reports. Prevention is possible through supporting families and offering resources before a crisis occurs. Protective factors include strong family relationships, parental knowledge of child development, and access to healthcare and social services.
Drafting and Peer Review
Child abuse and neglect, also known as child maltreatment, are significant public health issues defined as any act or failure to act by a parent, caregiver, or other person in a custodial role that results in harm, the potential for harm, or the threat of harm to a child under the age of 18. There are four primary categories of maltreatment, which often occur simultaneously Physical Abuse: The intentional use of physical force that can result in bodily injury, such as hitting, kicking, shaking, or burning. Sexual Abuse: Any sexual act or contact with a child, including fondling, penetration, or exposing a child to sexual materials or activities. Emotional (or Psychological) Abuse: Behaviors that harm a child's self-worth or emotional well-being, such as constant criticism, shaming, rejecting, or intimidating a child. Neglect: The failure to meet a child's basic physical and emotional needs, including adequate housing, food, clothing, education, supervision, and medical care. Neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment. Recognizing the signs of child abuse and neglect is crucial for intervention. Signs can manifest in the child's behavior, physical condition, or the parent/caregiver's actions.
The concept of addressing child abuse and neglect in America was not "established" in 1977 but rather was an ongoing national issue with significant developments that year, including Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) of 1974 was in full implementation and undergoing reauthorization hearings. This landmark federal law helped states to develop programs for the identification and prevention of child abuse and neglect. The establishment of the International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (ISPCAN) on July 7, 1977, by a group of professionals, including pediatrician Henry Kempe, who was a leading figure in bringing child abuse to national attention. The passage of the Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation Act of 1977 to address the issue of child pornography. The second National Conference on Child Abuse and Neglect was held in April 1977, focusing on innovation in intervention and implementation of model laws and reporting requirements. A national analysis of official reports in 1977 indicated a substantial increase in casework counseling and voluntary placement for child maltreatment cases. Overall, 1977 was a year of significant activity in refining and extending the legal and social frameworks for addressing child abuse and neglect that had been established earlier in the decade. These documents present the 1977 national analysis of child abuse and neglect reporting and discuss the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act.
Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation Act of 1977: This Act made it a federal crime to knowingly film, photograph, or transport minors for sexual acts, imposing significant fines and prison sentences. It was passed in response to increasing media attention on the issue of child pornography and aimed to stop the commercial sexual exploitation of children Extension of the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA): Hearings were held in April 1977 to examine and extend the provisions of the original CAPTA, which was enacted in 1974. These efforts eventually led to the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment and Adoption Reform Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-266), which broadened the federal definition of child abuse to include sexual exploitation and expanded the federal role in adoption reform. State- Levels Legislation in 1977 saw significant activity at the state level as well. An updated report on state legislative trends from that year details the various conditions, mandatory reporting requirements, and central registries being established across states to handle child abuse cases. For example, the District of Columbia passed the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect Act of 1977 (D.C. Law 2-22). The primary federal focus in 1977 was on addressing the specific, egregious issue of commercial child sexual exploitation and strengthening existing mechanisms for reporting and treatment of child abuse and neglect.
Child abuse and neglect can have severe, long-term impacts on a child's physical and mental health, brain development, educational attainment, and future opportunities. These effects can persist in adulthood, increasing the risk of chronic health problems, substance abuse, and future cycles of violence. Prevention is possible through supporting families and offering resources before a crisis occurs. Protective factors include strong family relationships, parental knowledge of child development, and access to healthcare and social services. In many places, professionals like doctors, teachers, and social workers are legally required to report their suspicions. In many states, all people are encouraged to report suspected abuse, but specific groups of professionals (mandated reporters) are legally required to do so when they have a "reasonable belief" that a minor is being abused or neglected in their professional capacity. Failure to report can result in criminal penalties. In some states, any person who has a reasonable belief that child abuse or neglect has occurred is required to report it. Even in states where the public is not legally mandated, anyone who suspects abuse or neglects is strongly encouraged to make a report to protect the child reports can often be made anonymously.
In the United States, there were an estimated 546,159 victims of child abuse and neglect in Federal Fiscal Year (FFY) 2023, a rate of 7.4 victims per 1,000 children in the population. These statistics represent only reported cases, and many incidents go unreported. Total Referrals to CPS agencies received almost 4.4 million referrals for approximately 7.78 million children. Maltreatment Type: Neglect was the most common form of maltreatment in 2022 at 74.3%, followed by physical abuse at 17.0%, and sexual abuse at 10.6% (percentages exceed 100% due to children experiencing multiple types of maltreatment).: Approximately 2,000 children died from abuse and neglect, a rate of 2.73 per 100,000, with boys having a higher rate than girls. Children under 1 year old had the highest victimization rate American Indian or Alaska Native children had the highest rate, followed by African American children. Girls had a slightly higher rate than boys. Professionals submitted the majority (70.9%) of reports in 2023. In 90% of cases, the perpetrator was known to the family, with parents being the majority (76.0% in 2023). The number of identified victims decreased from 2022 to 2023, while child fatalities have generally increased over the past several years. Statistics from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and other sources indicate significant racial and ethnic disparities in reported and substantiated cases of child abuse and neglect. American Indian/Alaska Native and Black children experience the highest rates of victimization and fatalities.
Racial disparities are even more pronounced in child fatalities due to abuse and neglect. The fatality rate for Black children is over three times greater than that of White children, and nearly four times greater than Hispanic children. These disparities are complex and linked to a combination of systemic issues, rather than just individual or family characteristics Black children with no history of public assistance still live in neighborhoods with significantly higher childhood poverty rates than White children with a history of public assistance. Poverty and economic uncertainty are significant drivers of maltreatment and related risk factors. Studies suggest that implicit bias and structural racism within the child protective services (CPS) and medical reporting systems contribute to higher reporting and investigation rates for Black and Native American families. Medical professionals have been found to have a higher threshold for suspecting White families of abuse and a lower threshold for Black families, even when controlling income levels. Disparities persist even in areas with robust child support policies, suggesting that underlying inequities in access to health and welfare systems play a significant role.
Children living in poverty experience more abuse and neglect. Experiencing poverty can place a lot of stress on families, which may increase the risk for child abuse and neglect. Rates of child abuse and neglect are five times higher for children in families with low socioeconomic status compared to families with a higher socioeconomic status. Child maltreatment is costly in the United States, a total lifetime economic burden associated with child abuse and neglect. A 2023 report that the University of Tennessee's Haslam college of Business placed the economic costs of child mortality from abuse and neglect at over $231 million per year in 2023 dollars. This economic burden rivals the cost of other high-profile public health problems, such as heart disease and diabetes. Over the long term, children who are abused or neglected are also at increased risk for experiencing future violence victimization and perpetration, substance abuse, sexually transmitted infections, delayed brain development, lower educational attainment, and limited employment opportunities. Abuse and neglect may result in toxic stress, which can change brain development and increase the risk for problems like posttraumatic stress disorder and learning, attention, and memory difficulties.
Poverty is a significant risk factor strongly correlated with increased rates of child abuse and, particularly, child neglect. While most families experiencing poverty do not maltreat their children, economic hardship creates stressors that can strain family functioning and increase the likelihood of abuse and neglect. Children from families with low socioeconomic status are at a significantly higher risk of experiencing abuse and neglect compared to those with higher socioeconomic status. The risk of harm from neglect can be over seven times greater for children in low-SES families. Economic pressure, such as job loss, food insecurity, and housing instability, contributes to parental stress, anxiety, and depression, which can impair parenting capacity. Limited resources and an inability to meet basic needs like adequate food, clothing, and shelter can also lead to situations classified as neglect. There is a strong correlation, poverty itself is generally not considered the direct cause of abuse or neglect, but rather a powerful underlying risk factor. Inability to provide due to lack of means is distinct from an unwillingness to provide. Families experiencing poverty are more likely to come under the scrutiny of the child welfare system, potentially leading to disproportionate reporting and investigation rates. There is concern that poverty is sometimes mistaken for neglect by mandatory reporters and child protective services (CPS).
Research shows that most maltreated children do not become abusive parents or criminals, but they are at a significantly higher risk than the general population. Studies consistently show that individuals with a history of child abuse and neglect are more likely to engage in delinquent and criminal behavior, including violent crimes, as juveniles and adults. One study found that child maltreatment victims were almost five times more likely to be charged with an offense than their non-abused counterparts. The connection is explained by several factors, including Social Learning: Children may adopt the violent behavior patterns they experience at home, learning that violence is an acceptable response to conflict Brain Development: Prolonged traumatic stress can disrupt healthy brain development, leading to difficulties with emotion regulation, attention, and behavior control. Psychological Issues: Victims are at higher risk for mental health problems like PTSD, depression, and anxiety, which can be linked to criminal behavior. Lack of Identity/Skills: Trauma can disrupt the formation of a stable sense of self, and victims may lack essential life skills (e.g., job searching, money management), leading them to crime as a means of survival. Substance Abuse: Abuse survivors may turn to drugs or alcohol to self-medicate and cope with emotional pain, which in turn can lead to criminal activity. Many victims are resilient and do not follow this pathway. Protective factors can buffer the negative effects of abuse, such as: Positive relationships with supportive adults (e.g., teachers, mentors, law enforcement officers)Access to appropriate prevention and treatment programs A stable home environment (if removed from the abusive situation) The failure of social systems to protect and care for these children is considered a significant factor in perpetuating the cycle of violence.
Adults who suffered child abuse and neglect as children are at a significantly increased risk for a wide range of long-term challenges, including poor physical health, mental health disorders, relationship difficulties, and behavioral problems. The specific outcomes can vary depending on the type, severity, and chronicity of the maltreatment, but the effects are often profound and enduring. Childhood maltreatment affects the developing brain and stress response systems, leading to numerous issues later in life. For example, Depression, anxiety, PTSD, Other Issues: Eating disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and dissociative disorders are also common. The chronic stress resulting from childhood trauma can lead to serious physical health problems in adulthood. Survivors often struggle with forming and maintaining healthy, stable relationships.
Behavioral and Economic Outcomes There is an increased likelihood of engaging in high-risk health behaviors, including alcohol and substance abuse, smoking, self-harm, and risky sexual behavior. Lower Economic Productivity: Adults with a history of child maltreatment are more likely to have lower educational attainment, lower IQ scores, and a decreased likelihood of having a skilled job. Criminal Behavior: Abused and neglected children are at a significantly higher risk for juvenile delinquency and adult criminality. Studies indicate that abused and neglected children are significantly more likely to be arrested as juveniles and as adults. The risk of arrest in violent crimes is substantially higher for those who have experienced abuse or neglect as children. Maltreated children have been found to be arrested more frequently and commit nearly twice as many offenses as their non-maltreated peers. Some research has found that while both genders are at increased risk, abused and neglected females are also at a higher risk for violent arrests as adults, which contrasts with some earlier findings. The increased risk for delinquency and criminality associated with child abuse and neglect is present across different racial and ethnic groups. A high percentage of incarcerated individuals report a history of childhood victimization. For example, one study of adult male felons found that 68% had experienced some form of early childhood abuse or neglect. Maltreated children tend to be arrested at a younger age, commit nearly twice as many offenses, and have more frequent criminal involvement. The probability of engaging in crime increases with the experience of multiple forms or greater severity of maltreatment. Children exposed to violence may become desensitized to it, viewing aggressive behavior as normal or acceptable. One prominent longitudinal study found that individuals who were abused or neglected as children were: 53% more likely to be arrested as a juvenile.,38% more likely to be arrested as an adult, 38% more likely to be arrested for a violent crime.
Conclusion is that Child abuse and neglect can be prevented certain factors may increase or decrease the risk of perpetrating or experiencing child abuse and neglect. Preventing child abuse and neglect requires understanding and addressing the factors that put people at risk for or protect them from violence. Everyone benefits when children have safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments we all have role to play. The necessity for increased awareness, early intervention, and a public health approach to prevention that focuses on creating safe, stable, and nurturing environments for all children. Providing access to concrete support like affordable housing, childcare subsidies, mental health services, and food assistance can help mitigate the stressors associated with poverty. Increase family income, such as a higher minimum wage, the Earned Income Tax Credit, and direct financial relief, have been linked to a reduction in child maltreatment reports. Prevention is possible through supporting families and offering resources before a crisis occurs. Protective factors include strong family relationships, parental knowledge of child development, and access to healthcare and social services.
