Research Papers / Compound words - Need proofreading [3]

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Compound words
Compound structure is formed by combining two substructures, two free morphemes, so compounding is the process of combining two free morphemes, be they nouns, adjectives, or verbs to make a compound word to describe new idea and objects. There are three forms of compounds: closed form which elements of the compound word are written as one word, without any hyphen or space, another form is by putting a space between the elements, the last form is they are written as two hyphenated words.

In the process of compounding there are four arguments. First, the compounds are affected by two correspondences, for instance, football; foot shows the substructure of ball. Second, the left hand substructure is described as dependent element and the other as independent or autonomous. Third, the left hand is modifier, and the other one acts as profile determinant, ball is the profile determinant of the entire compound structure. Fourth, the compound structure is composed as a result of successive combination of its elements.

Interpretation of compound words has two concepts. First, compositionality, in which a meaning of a complex is computed from either partial, endocentricity, or fully, exocentricity.

Second concept is analyzability, the case in which the elements of a compound structure match up phonetically and semantically, like, skinhead, skinhead means a person with a shaved head, often perceived as aggressive and racist.

Compound structure can be compound nouns, verbs, or adjectives.
Noun compound is a structure that is made up of two free elements, that is used to express new ideas, the left hand, the modifier, it can belongs to any word class, noun, adjective, or verbs. And the right hand is the profile terminant, the head, it must be a noun.

Prototypically, noun compound consists of two elements, both are nouns. The compounding combining are various ways. First, H, head, is the part of, M, modifier, the modifier denotes the whole and the head the part. For example, house door.

Second, M is the part of H, the modifier denotes the part an the head the whole. For example, flower garden.
Third, H is made of M, when the modifier suggests the substance and the head the outcome. For instance, leather shoes.
Fourth, H is used for M; the head names the goal and the head the instrument to achieve it. For example, tea spoon.
Fifth, M is used for H, modifier names the instrument by means of which the head as the goal, for example, motor cycle and computer game.

Sixth, H holds M, modifier signals content, and the head the container, for example water jug and letter box.
Seventh, H is positioned in M; modifier indicates the habit in which the head is placed, for example, beach house.
Eighteenth, M is positioned in M, modifier indicates the object or activity and the head the domicile in which it is positioned, for example check point, a point which check takes place.

Ninth, H is the time for M, modifier represents the object or the activity and the head the period of time, for example bon fire, and school year.

Tenth, M is the time for H, modifier represent the period of time in which object or activity occurs, for example, afternoon tea and weekend guest.

Eleventh, M is the field with which H is concerned, modifier refers to the field or subject which with the head as the actor is concerned, post office, business firm, job center, phone company, and fire department are the example for this.

Twelfth, H has the feature of M; modifier elucidates the shape, size, color, and the head the object. Egg plant is an example, it means egg like shape plant.

Thirteenth, H causes M, head is the result and modifier is the cause, for instance, influenza virus
Fourteenth, M causes H, for example, traffic jam.
Fifteenth, M is the measure for H, for example, four feet fence, two months rest...etc

Peripherally, a noun compound consists of two elements, the modifier either it is verb or adjective or the head is noun. Depending on the nature of the of the combining substructures, the compound expresses such relation as:

First, H does the action of M, modifier is a verb and the head is a noun (object), for example, play boy and hang man.

Second, H is the property of M, modifier is an adjective denoting property, head is a noun denoting object, for example, handy man and strong man.

Adjective compounds
Adjective compound consists of a modifier which is a noun, verb, or an adjective, and a head which must be an adjective.
Prototypical meaning of adjective compounds is many, and it consists of a noun which is M and a head which is adjective, prototypically, adjective compound have such relations:

First, H is the color of M, like, sky-blue house.
Second, M is the goal for H, for example, user-friendly system.
Third, H is the feature of M, for example, ice-cold water.
Fourth, M is the cause for H, M signifying cause and H signifying the effect, a for example, oil0rich country, camera-shy minister.
Fifth, M is the field for H, for example, color- blind bat.
Sixth, M is the place for H, for example, world-famous writer.
Seventh, M is the measure of H, for example, week-long visit and shoulder-high wall.
Eighth, M is without H, for example, fruitless tree.
Ninth, M is the thing and H is the action, for example, acne-ridden face.
Tenth, M is the thing to which H is disposed, for example, trend- minded people.
Eleventh, M is the destination towards H, for example, homeward journey..
M is the thing and H is the type, for example, German-style car and London-type jug.

Peripherally, an adjective compound consists of two elements; modifier and the head are being adjectives. Depending on the nature of the combining substructures, the adjective compound expresses the following semantic relationships:

First, M is a shade of H, for example, dark-blue suit is a suit which has a dark blue shade.
Second, M is the quality and the H is the processor, for example, money-saving tips.

Verb compounds
Verb compound is a structure that is made up of two free morphemes or lexical substructures; a verb compound consists of a modifier which may be a noun, adjective or a verb, and a head which must be a verb.

Prototypically, a verb compound consists of two substructures, M is a noun and the head is a verb. Below is the various combination of prototypical verb compound:

First, M performs H, for example, man hunt.
Second, M triggers H, for example, browbeat and spin-dry and force feed.
Third, M under goes H, for example, hair cut, house keep ...etc.
Fourth, M is the manner and H is done, for example, double park, touch type... Etc
Fifth, H is made of M, for example, snowball.
Sixth, M is the place for H, for example sight-read and lip read.
Peripherally, a verb compound consists of two elements, the modifier which might be verb or adjective and a head which must be a verb. Depending on the structure of the elements, the compound is expressing the following semantic relationships:

First, M and H happen simultaneously, for example, sleep walk and drink drive.
Second, M is the feature of and H is the action, for example, deep-freeze, and blacklist.

Compound domain
In the Inter-word-class domain, domain is a context of background of knowledge with regard to which the specific meanings of the compounds are identified. Within the domains, the compounds occupy different facets, and so take their shares in highlighting the domains. A facet is an element in a domain which expresses a particular concept. In each compound, the head evokes the specific facet an consequently represents the shift in meaning. Below are the domains which the compounds evoke.

First domain is purpose, and it includes three facets, tool, property, and manner. Tool used to attain the purpose. Morphologically, it represented by N+N compound for example, bath towel. Property denotes the property of the tool used in attaining the purpose its structure is ADJ+N compounds, for example cost effective. The final facet is manner which denotes the way the purpose attained; its structure is N+V compound, for example, breast feed.

Second domain is make, it includes three facets; material, property and manner. Material which denotes the material used in manufacturing the product, for example, make-bronze medal. Property denotes the property used in production, for example, paper thin. Final facet is manner; manner denotes the way the product works, for example, rubber stamp, it focuses on the way the object performs the action.

Third domain is location; it has three facets, thing, the thing existing in the place, for example, coast-road, activity, the activity occurring in the place, for example, brain dead, and property, the property of the place, for example, sight read and lip read.

Fourth domain is causation, it includes three facets; cause, the cause which bring about the result, for example, gas-blast , result, which is denotes the result exists due to the cause, for example, camera-shy, and activity, the activity occurring in the place, for example, baby-sit and house keep.

Fifth domain is comparison, it includes three facets; object, the object which is used as a basis for comparison, for example, bullet head( a head like a bullet),feature, the feature which is signaled out for comparison, the final facet is manner, the way the comparison is performed, for example, wolf-whistle.

Intra- word-class domains

Compounds form various domains on the basis of which their meanings can be characterized. Intra word class domains involve rivalry between compounds belonging to the same word class, a domain regarding to intra word class is configuration in which different types of relationships hold between its members, and facet is an aspect in a domain which expresses a particular concept. Although, the compounds relate to same domain, their meaning is quite different. Each compound occupies a certain facet, which provides its interpretation. The following presents are the domains which the compounds evoke:

First domain is motions three facets; direction, destination and mobility. Direction refers to the position towards someone or something moves or faces; its structure is N-ward, for example, home ward. Destination refers to the place to which a person is going to, this is illustrated by N-ward, for example, ground based. Final facet is mobility, it refers to the quality of being mobile, this is illustrated by N-based, for example, chair-bound.

Second domain is affliction; it includes two facets, sudden and refers to an event that happens suddenly, this is illustrated by N-stricken, for example, grave-stricken. Chronic refers to an event

The marked be long duration or frequent recurrence, for example, flood-ridden.

Third domain is dispossession; it includes two facets; permanent and temporary. Permanent is illustrated by N-less and temporary is illustrated by N-free for example, spotless house and queue free check.

Fourth domain is disposition; it includes two facets, awareness and inclination. Awareness is illustrated by N-conscious, for example, class conscious. And inclination can be either desirable or undesirable. Desirable is illustrated by N-minded, it means having it in mind as a goal, for example, peace-minded. And undesirable is illustrated by N-prone, for example, mischief prone, it means being easily influenced by something or having a fancy for it.

Fifth domain is resemblance; it has two facets, category and pattern. Category signals the genre, model or form of something, it is illustrated by N-type, for example, French-type. Pattern shows the manner of performing something, for example, German-style car.

Sixth domain is gender, it includes three facets; male, female, and neutral, they are illustrated by N-man, N-woman, and N-person, correspondently. For example, chair man, chair woman, and chair person.

Final domain is agent hood, it includes four facets which they are performer. First id illustrated by N-wright, for example, ship wright , It describes one who is skilled in making concrete objects especially woods. Second, it describes the one who spread bad things, for example, scandal monger. Third, it describes on who sell or delver physical objects, postman. The fourth is the one who shares a space or involved in the same activity with another, for example, workmate or classmate.

Properties of compound words

Compounds have many properties like, inseparability, reversibility, analogy, accommodation, and ambiguity, and these features are explained by construal. Construal is the way in which speakers understand the world and express it in language. Perspective is one aspect of construal, that's a way of looking a situation which changes relative to the requirement of the discourse. The properties are important for a better understanding of compounds in two ways. First, they reveal the identity of compounds, and so help us to learn more about behavior. Second, they show the conditions under which compounds are used, and so help us to avoid misusing them in communication. Below is the explanation on each property.

First, inseparability, in word formation, compounds are inseparable, in addition to syntactic phrase which are separable. The meaning of compound words can't reveal through the meaning of its components. Also, we cannot add any word between elements of compound words and, the compounds have mostly a falling intonation.

Second, reversibility, it means replacing the elements of compound words. In word formation, compounds show reversibility in that position of their elements can be exchanged which consequently it makes a different in structure and meaning, for example,

Sugar cane and can
e sugar. Sugar cane is the plant but cane sugar is the sugar that is put in juice and tea.

Third, analogy is resemblance in some particulars between things which are otherwise unlike, compounds can be composed by analogy, the process of creating new compounds on colloquial expressions, and analogy is the aspect of creativity. The core words can be both head and modifiers' positions. The cores words know the same meaning regarding of what they paired with, the result is a new semantic value and serve new communicative purposes.

For example:
Firewood, wood cut for burning
Firebomb, a bomb that makes a fire
Firework, for celebration
These examples below contain a common second element; the modifier is different where as the head is the same.
Gunfire, the repeated firing of gun
Gas fire, a fire fuelled by gas
Friendly fire, to kill people of your side

Fourth, ambiguity is something which admits of interpretation in two or more ways but seems to exclude one another in context. In word formation compounds can be ambiguous in isolation. The ambiguity appears when a given compound has more than one reading. The wordings of them are the same, but each reading describes the situation differently. For example,

-They guided all the eligible voters to the ballot boxes.
-They make their wishes known through the ballot box.
Ballot box has two reading, first refers to a box in which people put their ballot sheet after voting, and the second refers to a system of voting in an election.

Distinctions
Compounds shows a number of distinctions which are explained by construal. Two compounds may share the same content but differ in terms of construal imposed on that content. Below is a description of each distinction:

Category & pattern
The two pairs are representative of the domain of resemblance; they can be formed by sharing a modifier. Category is revealed by N-type, relating to same type and share common features. Pattern is revealed by N-style compounds, referring to the way in which something happens, develops or done. For example,

-They were in a family-type hotel, with a fair proportion of guests.
-In small firms, workers are expected to show family-style loyalty.
In first sentence means resembling a family in specimen, and in the second sentence, it means a trait that's characteristics of family members.
Direction & destination
Compound pairs which certain to the domain of motion can be formed by sharing a modifier. Despite similarity in information, each compound has its own individual use.

Direction is demonstrated by N-Ward compounds, referring to the position towards which someone or something moves, faces or aimed. Destination is illustrated by N-bound compound, referring to the place to which someone is going or to which something is being sent.

-He covered the homeward journey at full pelt.
-The home-bound train leaves at 22:00 hours.
First, it means looking toward home, and second, it means lading toward home.

Mobility & restriction
They are involved with the domain of motion, mobility is shown by N-based compounds, referring to the condition where the movements or actions of someone or something aren't limited. Restriction is shown by N-bound compounds, referring to the condition where the movement or actions are restricted or limited.

-In 2005, she did a college-based course in Linguistics at Oxford.
-The program is for college-bound students who play football.
Sudden & Chronic

Compound pairs which are elements of the domain of affliction can be formed by sharing a modifier. Sudden is asserted by N-stricken compounds, which mean happening suddenly.

Chronic is asserted by N-ridden compounds, which mean continuing for a long time and cannot be easily be solved. For example,

-Grief-stricken person is a person who is struck or over come with
grief.
-Grief-ridden person is a person who is oppressed or obsessed by grief.

Permanent & Temporary

They are pairs of dispossession domain. Temporary is represented by N-free, and temporary is represented by N-less compounds.

Awareness & Desirable

Compound pairs which are elements of disposition domain. Each compound has a different context of use. Awareness is represented by N+ conscious compounds, which mean knowing that something exists. Desirable inclination is represented by N-minded compounds, which mean tending to do something good.

Awareness & Undesirable inclination

Compound pairs which are constituents of the domain of disposition can be formed by sharing a modifier. Awareness is represented by N-conscious compounds, but undesirable is represented by N+-prone compounds, which mean tending to do , or being affected by something bad.