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Scenario: a large fire at a COMAH site in a heavily populated area has resulted in a large explosion and a release of a large smoky black plume containing substantial levels of ethyl benzene.
Your task: provide a detailed plan of the actions required below, that would be required following this incident. You will need to consider information on ethyl benzene involved.
(a) Information required undertaking a comprehensive risk assessment.
(b) A communication statement to be provided to the local media.
(c) Consider both the immediate and longer term response.
This work should include references to the relevant literature, especially peer reviewed, books and government websites
Introduction
Assessment and reduction of risks and nuisances related to incidences of gaseous emissions from site explosions represents one of the challenges of environmental and health management of sites with a substantial fraction of harmful chemicals. Incident Management and Reporting, even in best-controlled environment can be challenging and lead to (additional) costs. To reduce these losses, knowledge of and on such events and circumstances under which they occur is essential. Through a learning process which can be learned from mistakes, 'near misses' and other unexpected events, new knowledge and experience is preserved (Paustenbach, Bass, and Price, 1993). The diagram below details the action management
a. Information required in order to undertake a comprehensive risk assessment.
At the onset, it is important to understand what ethylbenzene is if its exposure incident is to be successfully managed. Ethylbenzene is a colorless liquid whose smells resembles that of gasoline. As a matter of fact, scientists report that a normal human can smell as little as 2 parts of ethylbenzene in a million parts of air (2 ppm). It is gaseous at room temperature and highly flammable.
According to accessible surface emissions standards as defined by the Environment Agency (EA):
Useful data
It is important to discern if the emissions produced are for permanent cover of temporary covers. For permanent covers: Standard issue is 0.001mg/m2/s ethylbenzene while for temporary covers: standard issue is 0.1 mg/m2/s ethylbenzene. As a result, consistent monitoring is advised. If measured ethylbenzene concentration is higher than 100 and less than 1000 ppmv cracks, a second measurement is required using "flow box" (detection range: 0.00005 to 5 mg / m2 / s) for realization of emission mapping and verification of values as well as implementation of corrective actions where thresholds are exceeded (Snyder and Kocsis, 2011).
Transmission
Additionally, important to understand is that when ethylbenzene enters the atmosphere it easily moves and spreads through the air and soil and can even contaminate groundwater (Duarte-Davidson, Courage, Rushton, & Levy, 2001).
Breakdown of ethylbenzene
In air, it is broken down in less than 3 days with help of sunlight. In water, it is broken down through its interaction with naturally present compounds in water. Bacteria soil also breaks down ethylbenzene.
Entry into human body
It is also important to take stock of ways through which ethylbenzene enters the body. When one breathes air that contain ethylbenzene, it enters rapidly enters the body through the lungs. Additionally, ethylbenzene present in food or water rapidly enters the body through the digestive tract (Ross, 2006). Further, the gas may penetrate the body through skin when one comes in contact with liquids that contain ethylbenzene (Blank and McAuliffe, 2012).
Exit of human body
Once in human body, ethylbenzene is broken down into other chemicals. Most of these other chemicals leave your body in the urine within 2 days. Small amounts of ethylbenzene can also leave your body through the lungs and in feces. This is however only the case for non-toxic levels of ethylbenzene.
b. A communication statement to be provided to the local media.
An explosion accompanied with ethylbenzene no doubts amounts to release of toxic gas to the atmosphere. As a result, it is important to release a comprehensive communication statement to be channeled to the surrounding population via the local media (IPCS, 2013). The communication should cover important aspects. A sample communication statement is hereby presented.
"Attention to everyone, please note that there has been a large fire outbreak at the COMAH site. Sadly, as a result of the explosion, there has been release of substantial amounts of ethyl benzene. All people are advised to stay as afar from the site as reasonably possibly. Please note that uptake of the substance into the body can occur through the following ways;
- Skin (coming into contact with contaminated substance)
- Mouth (eating contaminated substance)
- Breathing the gas directly
As a result, any kind of close proximity to the gas can have adverse effects on one's health (Srbova, Teisinger, and Skamovsky, 2010).
For those that have already come into contact with the gas, it is important to contact the nearest health facility for further guidelines.
c. Consider both the immediate and longer term response.
Typical response plan for the ethylbenzene exposure is provided below,
It is also important to have succinct understanding of the immediate responses required as soon as the incident occurs and so are long-term response measures.
Immediate responses
- All people should be evacuated from the source of exposure.
- Those with ethylbenzene skin contact should remove the affected clothes, wash affected areas using Luke warm water and soap for between 10 and 15 minutes and then seek medical advice
- Those with ethylbenzene contact in the eyes should remove contact lenses if any, and irrigate affected eye using lukewarm water for between 10 - 15 minutes and then seek medical advice.
- For those that have inhaled the gas, seek medical advice immediately
- Create a barrier to cordon off the affected area from entry by unaffected persons
For those assisting in mitigation,
- Use normal foam
- Wear liquid-tight chemical-protective clothing as well as breathing apparatus.
- Spillages and decontamination run-offs needs to be prevented from entering drains as well as watercourses.
- A gas-tight chemical protective suit that has breathing apparatus is recommended
Long-term responses
- Measure levels of surface concentration regularly
- Follow-up on the affected people
- Site reconstruction and detoxification
d. Implications on the environment, including AIR, WATER, LAND AND TOWARDS PUBLIC HEALTH (consider both SHORT TERM and LONG TERM following the incident)
Ethylbenzene is very mobile in the environment and as such, can spread quickly and easily in the air from other sources of pollutants. The four main ways of its spread in the environment are the same channels as toluene.
Air: Ethylbenzene, because of its physicochemical properties is only in vapor form when present in the atmosphere (INERIS, 2005). It is mainly degraded by reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed by photochemical reactions. Its life in the air is less than three days (INERIS, 2005a). The average ethylbenzene concentrations in ambient air are hardly documented.
Water: In water, ethylbenzene has the physicochemical characteristics required to be adsorbed to the particulate phase (Saada et al., 2005). It has the property of floating on water because of its lower density than water and its low solubility (CSST, 2007a). It evaporates from surface water (INERIS, 2005a). Its half-life biodegradation is about 40 days in surface waters and is also anaerobically biodegradable (INERIS, 2005a).
Soils: The mobility of ethylbenzene in soil is moderate and volatilization in moist soil is an important process (Saada et al., 2005). Ethylbenzene is biodegradable. Its half-life varies from six days to 220 days (Saada et al., 2005).
Bio-environment: Studies in fish and shellfish have shown that ethylbenzene BAF were very low (INERIS, 2005a). For example, the bioaccumulation factor for rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss sky is 1.0 (Roubal et al., 1978 and INERIS, 2005a). For the mollusk Tapes semidecussa, bioaccumulation factor varies between 4 and 5 (INERIS, 2005a). Ethylbenzene is not considered a bioaccumulative substance for these species (INERIS, 2005a). However, INERIS has calculated that the bioaccumulation factor of ethylbenzene is 94 from its Kow. Ethylbenzene is moderately absorbed by fat and can accumulate in animals (Environment Canada 2004a).
The main effect of ethylbenzene vapors is irritation of eyes, nose and mucous membranes at concentrations of about 200 x 10ł mg / mł air (INERIS, 2005a). The highest concentrations can cause depression of the central nervous system and liver and kidney damage transients (INERIS, 2005a). Effects such as drowsiness, headache, dizziness and vertigo were observed in volunteers exposed to concentrations above 100 x 10ł mg / mł air (CSST, 2007a). As the concentration increases, there is a tearing and irritation of the nasal mucosa and upper respiratory tract. This effect becomes intolerable from 5000 x 10ł mg / mł air (INRS, 2007b). After repeated or prolonged contact, ethylbenzene has a degreasing effect on the skin; it can cause redness and cracking (CSST, 2007a).
Various epidemiological studies have been conducted in workers exposed to solvents including ethylbenzene, but their interpretation is limited by the simultaneous exposure to other solvents, lack of exposure data and divergent results (CSST 2007a). For example, two studies give conflicting results on hematological effects (hemoglobin and lymphocytes) for the estimated exposure levels below the standards (CSST, 2007a). As Ethylbenzene is rarely used alone, a large number of non-cancer effects from acute exposure to ethylbenzene were attributed to xylenes mixture with which it is in technical grade solvents used in industrial products and consumer products (Health Canada 2007). Simultaneous exposure of ethylbenzene (150 x 10ł mg / mł of air) with m-xylene (150 x 10ł mg / mł of air) leads to a decrease (mutual inhibition) excretion of mandelic acids, phénolglyoxylique and methylhippuric in urine (CSST, 2007a).
In humans, no association was found between the occurrence of cancer and pulmonary exposure to ethylbenzene (INERIS, 2005a). The only available study showed that 200 workers exposed to pulmonary ethylbenzene for 20 years showed no excess of malignant tumors in the last ten years (and Bardodej Cirek 1988 quoted by INERIS, 2005a). In this study, concentrations of ethylbenzene which employees were exposed are not known and followed for 20 years seems long enough to detect tumors long latency in humans. No studies on the carcinogenicity of ethylbenzene oral or dermal route are available humans (INERIS, 2005a).
Environment Canada indicated that ethylbenzene did not cause cancer in humans; by cons, experimental studies have shown that the presence of ethylbenzene in air resulting in adverse effects such as the development of cancers of the liver and lung in mice and kidney cancer in rats exposed to high concentrations (Health Canada, 2007). The concentrations used in these studies are much higher than those to which Canadians are usually exposed (Health Canada, 2007). Based on sufficient evidence in experimental animals and inadequate evidence in humans, IARC concluded that ethylbenzene is possibly carcinogenic to humans (Health Canada, 2007). No studies on the carcinogenicity of ethylbenzene by oral, dermal available for humans.
Few studies have been done on the toxicity of ethylbenzene in invertebrates, vertebrates and plants; there is none of its toxicity on soil microbes (Environment Canada 2004a). One study showed that earthworms can die if exposed to ethylbenzene in soil and lettuce and radish seeds exposed to ethylbenzene will germinate less (Environment Canada 2004a). Ethylbenzene has a low acute toxicity in animals, regardless of the route of exposure. It is essentially narcotic and irritating. Laboratory studies have found that ethylbenzene reduces the concentration of dopamine in the brain of the rabbit (Environment Canada and Health Canada 2004a, 2007). The minimum inhalation LC50 is 17200 mg / mł in rats for a four-hour exposure (Health Canada, 2007). The rats are then subjected to irritation of the eyes and nose and a loss of control over their movements and dizziness (Environment Canada 2004a). Following exposure of longer duration, the rat liver increases in weight and blood platelets become more numerous (Environment Canada, 2004a and 2005a INERIS). There are no studies of the effects of ethylbenzene on livestock, wildlife and birds (Environment Canada 2004a).
Scenario: a large fire at a COMAH site in a heavily populated area has resulted in a large explosion and a release of a large smoky black plume containing substantial levels of ethyl benzene.
Your task: provide a detailed plan of the actions required below, that would be required following this incident. You will need to consider information on ethyl benzene involved.
(a) Information required undertaking a comprehensive risk assessment.
(b) A communication statement to be provided to the local media.
(c) Consider both the immediate and longer term response.
This work should include references to the relevant literature, especially peer reviewed, books and government websites
Introduction
Assessment and reduction of risks and nuisances related to incidences of gaseous emissions from site explosions represents one of the challenges of environmental and health management of sites with a substantial fraction of harmful chemicals. Incident Management and Reporting, even in best-controlled environment can be challenging and lead to (additional) costs. To reduce these losses, knowledge of and on such events and circumstances under which they occur is essential. Through a learning process which can be learned from mistakes, 'near misses' and other unexpected events, new knowledge and experience is preserved (Paustenbach, Bass, and Price, 1993). The diagram below details the action management
a. Information required in order to undertake a comprehensive risk assessment.
At the onset, it is important to understand what ethylbenzene is if its exposure incident is to be successfully managed. Ethylbenzene is a colorless liquid whose smells resembles that of gasoline. As a matter of fact, scientists report that a normal human can smell as little as 2 parts of ethylbenzene in a million parts of air (2 ppm). It is gaseous at room temperature and highly flammable.
According to accessible surface emissions standards as defined by the Environment Agency (EA):
Useful data
It is important to discern if the emissions produced are for permanent cover of temporary covers. For permanent covers: Standard issue is 0.001mg/m2/s ethylbenzene while for temporary covers: standard issue is 0.1 mg/m2/s ethylbenzene. As a result, consistent monitoring is advised. If measured ethylbenzene concentration is higher than 100 and less than 1000 ppmv cracks, a second measurement is required using "flow box" (detection range: 0.00005 to 5 mg / m2 / s) for realization of emission mapping and verification of values as well as implementation of corrective actions where thresholds are exceeded (Snyder and Kocsis, 2011).
Transmission
Additionally, important to understand is that when ethylbenzene enters the atmosphere it easily moves and spreads through the air and soil and can even contaminate groundwater (Duarte-Davidson, Courage, Rushton, & Levy, 2001).
Breakdown of ethylbenzene
In air, it is broken down in less than 3 days with help of sunlight. In water, it is broken down through its interaction with naturally present compounds in water. Bacteria soil also breaks down ethylbenzene.
Entry into human body
It is also important to take stock of ways through which ethylbenzene enters the body. When one breathes air that contain ethylbenzene, it enters rapidly enters the body through the lungs. Additionally, ethylbenzene present in food or water rapidly enters the body through the digestive tract (Ross, 2006). Further, the gas may penetrate the body through skin when one comes in contact with liquids that contain ethylbenzene (Blank and McAuliffe, 2012).
Exit of human body
Once in human body, ethylbenzene is broken down into other chemicals. Most of these other chemicals leave your body in the urine within 2 days. Small amounts of ethylbenzene can also leave your body through the lungs and in feces. This is however only the case for non-toxic levels of ethylbenzene.
b. A communication statement to be provided to the local media.
An explosion accompanied with ethylbenzene no doubts amounts to release of toxic gas to the atmosphere. As a result, it is important to release a comprehensive communication statement to be channeled to the surrounding population via the local media (IPCS, 2013). The communication should cover important aspects. A sample communication statement is hereby presented.
"Attention to everyone, please note that there has been a large fire outbreak at the COMAH site. Sadly, as a result of the explosion, there has been release of substantial amounts of ethyl benzene. All people are advised to stay as afar from the site as reasonably possibly. Please note that uptake of the substance into the body can occur through the following ways;
- Skin (coming into contact with contaminated substance)
- Mouth (eating contaminated substance)
- Breathing the gas directly
As a result, any kind of close proximity to the gas can have adverse effects on one's health (Srbova, Teisinger, and Skamovsky, 2010).
For those that have already come into contact with the gas, it is important to contact the nearest health facility for further guidelines.
c. Consider both the immediate and longer term response.
Typical response plan for the ethylbenzene exposure is provided below,
It is also important to have succinct understanding of the immediate responses required as soon as the incident occurs and so are long-term response measures.
Immediate responses
- All people should be evacuated from the source of exposure.
- Those with ethylbenzene skin contact should remove the affected clothes, wash affected areas using Luke warm water and soap for between 10 and 15 minutes and then seek medical advice
- Those with ethylbenzene contact in the eyes should remove contact lenses if any, and irrigate affected eye using lukewarm water for between 10 - 15 minutes and then seek medical advice.
- For those that have inhaled the gas, seek medical advice immediately
- Create a barrier to cordon off the affected area from entry by unaffected persons
For those assisting in mitigation,
- Use normal foam
- Wear liquid-tight chemical-protective clothing as well as breathing apparatus.
- Spillages and decontamination run-offs needs to be prevented from entering drains as well as watercourses.
- A gas-tight chemical protective suit that has breathing apparatus is recommended
Long-term responses
- Measure levels of surface concentration regularly
- Follow-up on the affected people
- Site reconstruction and detoxification
d. Implications on the environment, including AIR, WATER, LAND AND TOWARDS PUBLIC HEALTH (consider both SHORT TERM and LONG TERM following the incident)
Ethylbenzene is very mobile in the environment and as such, can spread quickly and easily in the air from other sources of pollutants. The four main ways of its spread in the environment are the same channels as toluene.
Air: Ethylbenzene, because of its physicochemical properties is only in vapor form when present in the atmosphere (INERIS, 2005). It is mainly degraded by reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed by photochemical reactions. Its life in the air is less than three days (INERIS, 2005a). The average ethylbenzene concentrations in ambient air are hardly documented.
Water: In water, ethylbenzene has the physicochemical characteristics required to be adsorbed to the particulate phase (Saada et al., 2005). It has the property of floating on water because of its lower density than water and its low solubility (CSST, 2007a). It evaporates from surface water (INERIS, 2005a). Its half-life biodegradation is about 40 days in surface waters and is also anaerobically biodegradable (INERIS, 2005a).
Soils: The mobility of ethylbenzene in soil is moderate and volatilization in moist soil is an important process (Saada et al., 2005). Ethylbenzene is biodegradable. Its half-life varies from six days to 220 days (Saada et al., 2005).
Bio-environment: Studies in fish and shellfish have shown that ethylbenzene BAF were very low (INERIS, 2005a). For example, the bioaccumulation factor for rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss sky is 1.0 (Roubal et al., 1978 and INERIS, 2005a). For the mollusk Tapes semidecussa, bioaccumulation factor varies between 4 and 5 (INERIS, 2005a). Ethylbenzene is not considered a bioaccumulative substance for these species (INERIS, 2005a). However, INERIS has calculated that the bioaccumulation factor of ethylbenzene is 94 from its Kow. Ethylbenzene is moderately absorbed by fat and can accumulate in animals (Environment Canada 2004a).
The main effect of ethylbenzene vapors is irritation of eyes, nose and mucous membranes at concentrations of about 200 x 10ł mg / mł air (INERIS, 2005a). The highest concentrations can cause depression of the central nervous system and liver and kidney damage transients (INERIS, 2005a). Effects such as drowsiness, headache, dizziness and vertigo were observed in volunteers exposed to concentrations above 100 x 10ł mg / mł air (CSST, 2007a). As the concentration increases, there is a tearing and irritation of the nasal mucosa and upper respiratory tract. This effect becomes intolerable from 5000 x 10ł mg / mł air (INRS, 2007b). After repeated or prolonged contact, ethylbenzene has a degreasing effect on the skin; it can cause redness and cracking (CSST, 2007a).
Various epidemiological studies have been conducted in workers exposed to solvents including ethylbenzene, but their interpretation is limited by the simultaneous exposure to other solvents, lack of exposure data and divergent results (CSST 2007a). For example, two studies give conflicting results on hematological effects (hemoglobin and lymphocytes) for the estimated exposure levels below the standards (CSST, 2007a). As Ethylbenzene is rarely used alone, a large number of non-cancer effects from acute exposure to ethylbenzene were attributed to xylenes mixture with which it is in technical grade solvents used in industrial products and consumer products (Health Canada 2007). Simultaneous exposure of ethylbenzene (150 x 10ł mg / mł of air) with m-xylene (150 x 10ł mg / mł of air) leads to a decrease (mutual inhibition) excretion of mandelic acids, phénolglyoxylique and methylhippuric in urine (CSST, 2007a).
In humans, no association was found between the occurrence of cancer and pulmonary exposure to ethylbenzene (INERIS, 2005a). The only available study showed that 200 workers exposed to pulmonary ethylbenzene for 20 years showed no excess of malignant tumors in the last ten years (and Bardodej Cirek 1988 quoted by INERIS, 2005a). In this study, concentrations of ethylbenzene which employees were exposed are not known and followed for 20 years seems long enough to detect tumors long latency in humans. No studies on the carcinogenicity of ethylbenzene oral or dermal route are available humans (INERIS, 2005a).
Environment Canada indicated that ethylbenzene did not cause cancer in humans; by cons, experimental studies have shown that the presence of ethylbenzene in air resulting in adverse effects such as the development of cancers of the liver and lung in mice and kidney cancer in rats exposed to high concentrations (Health Canada, 2007). The concentrations used in these studies are much higher than those to which Canadians are usually exposed (Health Canada, 2007). Based on sufficient evidence in experimental animals and inadequate evidence in humans, IARC concluded that ethylbenzene is possibly carcinogenic to humans (Health Canada, 2007). No studies on the carcinogenicity of ethylbenzene by oral, dermal available for humans.
Few studies have been done on the toxicity of ethylbenzene in invertebrates, vertebrates and plants; there is none of its toxicity on soil microbes (Environment Canada 2004a). One study showed that earthworms can die if exposed to ethylbenzene in soil and lettuce and radish seeds exposed to ethylbenzene will germinate less (Environment Canada 2004a). Ethylbenzene has a low acute toxicity in animals, regardless of the route of exposure. It is essentially narcotic and irritating. Laboratory studies have found that ethylbenzene reduces the concentration of dopamine in the brain of the rabbit (Environment Canada and Health Canada 2004a, 2007). The minimum inhalation LC50 is 17200 mg / mł in rats for a four-hour exposure (Health Canada, 2007). The rats are then subjected to irritation of the eyes and nose and a loss of control over their movements and dizziness (Environment Canada 2004a). Following exposure of longer duration, the rat liver increases in weight and blood platelets become more numerous (Environment Canada, 2004a and 2005a INERIS). There are no studies of the effects of ethylbenzene on livestock, wildlife and birds (Environment Canada 2004a).
